In the 1990s, a significant number of countries agreed to ban anti-personnel mines, but the ongoing Russia-Ukraine war has altered the situation in Europe. Raheela Bibi, a 12-year-old from Pakistan, was severely injured by a landmine in August 2020, resulting in the amputation of both her hands. Her sister suffered a serious leg injury, and her brother sustained an eye injury. Bibi expressed her determination to continue her education despite these challenges.
According to a preliminary analysis by the NGO Landmine and Cluster Munition Monitor, over 5,000 people, primarily civilians, were killed or injured by landmines or unexploded ordnance in 2025. In South Sudan, 90% of the victims were children. Landmines are designed to injure rather than kill, as an injured soldier imposes a greater resource burden on the enemy. However, in peacetime, landmines pose a significant threat to civilians, particularly children.
Decades after the Yugoslav wars from 1991 to 2001, landmines continue to cause casualties in the former Yugoslavia, especially in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In 1999, there were approximately 25,000 landmine casualties annually, leading to increased pressure to ban their use. The Ottawa Treaty, signed in 1997 by representatives from over 120 countries, became legally binding in 1999, with 166 countries ratifying it, excluding China, India, Russia, and the US.
Following Russia's full-scale invasion of Ukraine in 2022, five European NATO countries bordering Russia withdrew from the treaty, with Ukraine also announcing its withdrawal, which will take effect after the war ends. Simone Wisotzki from the Leibniz Peace Research Institute (PRIF) expressed concern that this sets a dangerous precedent for other treaty signatories facing conflict.
Ukraine justified its withdrawal by citing Russia's use of landmines, stating, "We cannot remain bound under conditions when the enemy has no restrictions," according to Roman Kostenko, secretary of the Ukrainian parliament's committee on national security, defense, and intelligence. The United Nations Mine Action Service (UNMAS) reported that as of mid-2025, approximately 25% of Ukraine was affected by landmines and explosive ordnance, with over 1,150 civilians killed or injured since February 2022. The estimated cost for full demining in Ukraine is just under $35 billion over ten years.
Countries like Poland, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia, which have experienced Russian aggression, also withdrew from the Ottawa Treaty. Polish Prime Minister Donald Tusk has indicated that Poland aims to mine its eastern borders with Russia quickly if necessary, and the state-owned defense company Belma has been contracted to produce anti-personnel mines. Lithuania has also announced plans to resume the manufacture and purchase of landmines.
The Finnish military stated that if mines are deemed necessary, they should be laid responsibly, with accurate mapping and demining plans. Wisotzki noted that while this represents progress, modern anti-personnel mines often incorporate advanced technologies that complicate removal and destruction efforts. Mines are typically placed in civilian areas, leading to disproportionate injuries among civilians.
The Landmine and Cluster Munition Monitor reported that while older mines are being cleared, new mines continue to be deployed in Ukraine and other regions such as Myanmar. This trend occurs alongside a decline in arms control, with the expiration or termination of three major agreements between the US and Russia: the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty, the New Start Treaty, and the Treaty on Open Skies. Russia's withdrawal also effectively ended the CFE treaty, which aimed to stabilize conventional armed forces in Europe.
Wisotzki remarked that humanitarian arms control, including the Anti-Personnel Mine Ban Convention, was one of the last functioning areas of arms control, which is no longer the case.